Formulation and Evaluation of Clove Oil–Loaded Niosomal Gel for Topical Delivery
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55006/Keywords:
Niosomes, Clove oil, Topical gel, Carbopol, Entrapment efficiencyAbstract
This paper aimed to mix and test a clove oil-loaded niosomal gel to improve topical delivery. Clove oil is also rich in eugenol and is highly antimicrobial, but its active compound is volatile and easily released when used conventionally. To overcome these limitations, niosomes were developed using the thin-film hydration method with Span 60 and cholesterol, which were then embedded in a carbopol gel base. The optimised formulation (F3) exhibited a vesicle size of 182.4 ± 4.2 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.241 ± 0.02, characteristic of uniform nanosized vesicles. The entrapment efficiency of 78.54 +/- 3.1% indicated the successful entrapment of clove oil. In vitro release experiments revealed 84.3 ± 2.4% release after 24 hours, compared with 98.7 ± 1.8% from the conventional gel after 12 hours (p < 0.05). The niosomal gel was also better in antimicrobial activity, with a zone of inhibition of 24 mm against Staphylococcus aureus and 21 mm against Candida albicans (p<0.05). These findings indicate that niosomal encapsulation significantly enhances the stability, prolonged release, skin retention, and antimicrobial activity of clove oil, making it a promising alternative for topical use in medicinal therapy.
Downloads
References
1. Sharifi-Rad, J.; Salehi, B.; Varoni, E.M.; Sharopov, F.; Antal, D.; Rajkovic, J.; et al. Zingiber officinale Roscoe and its bioactive constituents: traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology. Plants 2019, 8 (12), 530. doi:10.3390/plants8120530
2. Pandey, A.K.; Kumar, P.; Singh, P.; Tripathi, N.N.; Bajpai, V.K. Essential oils: sources of compounds with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Fitoterapia 2017, 119, 56–66. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2017.04.004
3. Gülçin, I.; Şaş, I.G.; Beydemir, S.; Elmastaş, M.; Küfrevioğlu, Ö.I. Comparison of antioxidant activity of clove (Syzygium aromaticum L.) buds and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.). J. Food Biochem. 2004, 28 (2), 169–179. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4514.2004.tb00263.x
4. Kamatou, G.P.P.; Vermaak, I.; Viljoen, A.M. Eugenol - From the remote Maluku Islands to the international market: a review of a remarkable and versatile molecule. Molecules 2012, 17 (6), 6953–6981. doi:10.3390/molecules17066953
5. Nogueira, J.C.R.; Diniz, L.R.L.; de Oliveira, J.W.F.; Peixoto, H. Chemical composition and bioactivity of clove essential oil: a systematic review. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2021, 27 (17), 2047–2071. doi:10.2174/1381612827666210401122301
6. Friedman, M.; Henika, P.R.; Mandrell, R.E. Bactericidal activities of plant essential oils and some of their isolated constituents against Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. J. Food Prot. 2002, 65 (10), 1545–1560. doi:10.4315/0362-028X-65.10.1545
7. Masango, P. Cleaner production of essential oils by steam distillation. J. Clean. Prod. 2005, 13 (8), 833–839. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.02.039
8. Ozcan, M.; Chalchat, J.C. Chemical composition and antifungal effect of clove (Syzygium aromaticum L. Merr. & Perry) essential oils from Turkey, Indonesia and Madagascar. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2008, 18 (3), 297–305. doi:10.1080/10412905.2008.9699842
9. Bakkali, F.; Averbeck, S.; Averbeck, D.; Idaomar, M. Biological effects of essential oils—a review. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46 (2), 446–475. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.09.106
10. Kumar, L.; Verma, R. In vitro evaluation of topical gel formulations. Pharmacologyonline 2010, 1, 625–635.
11. Moghassemi, S.; Hadjizadeh, A. Nano-niosomes as nanoscale drug delivery systems: an illustrated review. J. Control. Release 2014, 185, 22–36. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.04.015
12. Uchegbu, I.F.; Florence, A.T. Non-ionic surfactant vesicles (niosomes): physical and pharmaceutical chemistry. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 1995, 17 (1), 3–19. doi:10.1016/0169-409X(95)00005-M
13. Baillie, A.J.; Florence, A.T.; Hume, L.R.; Muirhead, G.T.; Rogerson, A. The preparation and properties of niosomes—non-ionic surfactant vesicles. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1985, 37 (12), 863–868. doi:10.1111/j.2042-7158.1985.tb04991.x
14. Hunter, J.R.; Hinchcliffe, J.; Alpar, H.O. Niosomes: enhanced delivery systems for therapeutic applications. Drug Deliv. Technol. 2004, 4 (1), 34–42.
15. Uchegbu, I.F.; Vyas, S.P. Non-ionic surfactant-based vesicles (niosomes) in drug delivery. Int. J. Pharm. 1998, 172 (1-2), 33–70. doi:10.1016/S0378-5173(98)00169-0
16. Jain, S.; Jain, P.; Umamaheshwari, R.B.; Jain, N.K. Transfersomes: a novel vesicular carrier for enhanced transdermal delivery of pentazocine. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2003, 6 (3), 426–435.
17. Manosroi, J.; Khositsuntikul, N.; Manosroi, A. Characterization of isoflavone-loaded niosomal gels and their candidate use for cosmetic application. J. Pharm. Sci. 2007, 96 (9), 2311–2319. doi:10.1002/jps.20812
18. Pongsupthip, P.; Chareonpanich, M.; Bambang, R.S. Drug delivery carriers for essential oils. Ind. Crops Prod. 2020, 154, 112643. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112643
19. Pooja; Pandey, M.; Kumar, T.; Goswami, H.; Kumari, R.; Kumari, S.; et al. Nano-nutraceuticals to combat oxidative stress: unlocking newer paradigms in adjuvant therapy. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2024, 24 (17), 1490–1503.
20. Kumar Uttam; Ullagaddi Mrityunjaya; Kumar Satinder; Priyanka; Asokan, B.R.; Pathak Ashutosh; Sharma Naveen; G. H. Development, characterization, and in vitro evaluation of phospholipid-based liposomes encapsulating linezolid for targeted therapeutic management of Gram-positive bacterial infections. Int. J. Environ. Sci. 2025, 16, 1118–1129.
21. Sathiya Narayana Murthy; Indumathi Parameswaran; Rashmi Mohapatra; Damayanti Giri, P.; Shankar Gupta; Harsh Goswami; Piyali Dey; G. M., P. Pharmacognostic and biochemical validation of Albizia lebbeck bark: a multifaceted investigation into its phenolic content and antidiabetic enzyme inhibitory potential. J. Neonatal Surg. 2025, 29 (June), 430–441.
22. Marianecci, C.; Di Marzio, L.; Rinaldi, F.; et al. Niosomes from the 80s to present: the state of the art. Nanoscale 2014, 6 (17), 9846–9860.
23. Ghanbarzadeh, S.; Arami, S. Enhanced oral bioavailability of propranolol by niosomal carriers. Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 2013, 39 (12), 1981–1990.
24. Devaraj, G.N.; Ganeshprasad, S.; Venkatesh, N.; et al. Formulation and evaluation of diltiazem hydrochloride-loaded niosomes. Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 2002, 28 (8), 957–962.
25. Yoshioka, T.; Sternberg, B.; Florence, A.T. Niosomes as drug carriers: encapsulation and release of ketoprofen. STP Pharma Sci. 1995, 5, 213–218.
26. Pardakhty, A.; Varshosaz, J.; Rouholamini, A. In vitro study of polyoxyethylene alkyl ether niosomes for insulin delivery. Int. J. Pharm. 2007, 328 (2), 130–141.
27. Dorata, P.; Goswami, H.; Kumar, T.; Pandey, M. Unveiling the pharmacological attributes of Pupalia lappacea: an unexplored plant. Pharmacogn. Res. 2024, 16 (3).
28. Muzzalupo, R.; Tavano, L.; Cassano, R.; et al. Niosomal gel for topical delivery of epirubicin. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2014, 123, 302–310.
29. Tavano, L.; Muzzalupo, R.; Picci, R.; et al. Niosomes vs microemulsions for topical delivery of Capsicum oleoresin. Int. J. Pharm. 2010, 393 (1-2), 254–260.
30. Ghanbarzadeh, S.; Valizadeh, H.; Zakeri-Milani, P. Formulation development of ketoconazole niosomes using RSM. Pharm. Nanotechnol. 2013, 1 (4), 218–225.
31. El-Kamel, A.H. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of ketoprofen niosomal gel. Int. J. Pharm. 2002, 241 (1), 47–55.
32. Alsarra, I.A. Mucoadhesive drug delivery systems for topical ophthalmic use. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2009, 73 (1), 114–119.
33. Kumari, R.; Goswami, H.; Sharma, M.; Majhi, S.; Verma, M. Bioactive potential of Murraya koenigii’s oil, its conventional applications, GC-MS profiling and in-silico prediction of antioxidant and antidiabetic. Lett. Funct. Foods 2025, 2 (2), 112–121.
34. Deokar, S.; Khade, S.; Khade, P. Formulation and evaluation of aceclofenac-loaded niosomal gel. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res. 2013, 4 (3), 1175–1181.
35. Vyas, S.P.; Rathi, V. Preparation and characterisation of silver sulfadiazine niosomes. J. Microencapsul. 2002, 19 (5), 613–621.
36. Gorai, S.; Singh, S.; Suvathipriya, S.; Vernekar, S.A.; Bhamare, P.C. Pharmacological evaluation of antidepressant-like activity of hydroalcoholic extract of Ixora coccinea flowers using standard behavioural despair murine models in mice. Int. J. Environ. Sci. 2025, 11 (18), 1552–156.
37. Manosroi, A.; Kongkaneramit, R.; Manosroi, J. Stability and transdermal absorption of amphotericin B liposomes. Int. J. Pharm. 2004, 270 (1-2), 279–286.
38. Rodrigues, T.B.; Fernandes, P.M.; Sousa, A.D.; et al. Clove oils: extraction and bioactivity. Foods 2021, 10 (12), 2948c.
39. Tanuja; Goswami, H.; Tyagi, A.; Sharma, S.; Vishwas, S. From lab to life: safety, regulatory pathways and clinical trials in PCOS nanomedicine. In Nanotechnology NextGen: From Treatment to Transformation in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS); Pal, R., Rai, A., Pannu, S., Reena, Das, A.R., Eds.; Deep Science Publishing: Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2025; pp. 129–154. doi:10.70593/978-93-7185-087-2 6.
40. Moghimi, H.R.; Rafiei, A.; Mohammadi-Samani, S. Niosomal encapsulation improves drug effects. Int. J. Nanomedicine 2014, 9, 6137–6150.
41. Shakeri, F.; Teimoori, F.; Shakeri, A.; et al. Niosomal gel of tretinoin for topical delivery. Drug Deliv. Transl. Res. 2019, 9 (5), 1017–1028.
42. Tavano, L.; Muzzalupo, R.; Picci, R.; et al. Co-encapsulation into niosomes. J. Drug Target 2011, 19 (10), 796–803.
43. Abdelbary, G.A.; Amin, M.M.; Hammam, O.A. Intranasal niosomal gel of olanzapine. Pharm. Dev. Technol. 2020, 25 (3), 346–356.
44. Chaieb, K.; Zmantar, T.; Ksouri, R.; et al. Antioxidant and antifungal activity of clove oil. Mycoses 2007, 50 (5), 403–406.
CITATION
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Harsh Goswami, Vishal Kumar, Ishika Tyagi, Sonal Sharma, Shallu Sharma, Mansi Aggarwal, Monika Sachdeva
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
-
Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
- No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
